NASA Ceroboh, Data Sensitif Lolos ke Publik

INILAH.COM, Florida- Ditemukan pelanggaran keamanan serius di kantor pusat NASA di Florida. NASA secara ceroboh tidak menghapus data di hard drive komputer hingga perangkat itu jatuh ke tangan publik.

“Penyelidikan kami menemukan adanya pelanggaran serius di sistem keamanan TI (teknologi informasi) NASA yang bisa menyebabkan menyebarnya informasi sensitif terkait program Space Shuttle dan program NASA lainnya,” kata Inspektur Jenderal NASA Paul Martin. NASA akan mengambil tindakan secara terkoordinasi untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut.

Laporan itu menyebutkan adanya 14 komputer dari Kennedy Space Center yang gagal tes untuk menentukan apakah perangkat itu telah dibersihkan dari informasi sensitif atau belum. Sepuluh komputer lainnya telah keluar ke publik. Selain itu, laporan itu menyebutkan adanya hard drive yang hilang dari Kennedy dan Langley Research Center, Virginia. Beberapa di antaranya telah berada di tangan publik.

Penyelidik juga menemukan beberapa paket komputer yang sedang dipersiapkan untuk dijual ke publik dengan alamat IP (Internet Protocol) NASA. NASA mengatakan akan memperbarui kebijakan dan menerbitkan buku pegangan keamanan TI baru pada Juni 2011.[ito]

Sudah saatnya SARJANA KOMPUTER Indonesia GO INTERNATIONAL

Banyak orang di Indonesia kesulitan mencari kerja, sementara itu katanya di luar negeri banyak lowongan kerja terutama untuk bidang yang berhubungan dengan teknologi informasi, bidang "high-tech". Betulkah demikian ? dan apa mungkin lulusan Perguruan Tinggi Indonesia bisa bekerja di luar negeri ?

Mengutip sebuah survey yang telah dilakukan oleh PT Work IT Out yang dipimpin oleh Heru Nugroho, meski masih banyak dibutuhkan di dalam negeri, peluang kerja bagi tenaga kerja TI untuk keluar negeri pun terbuka luas, Kesempatan tetap terbuka, apalagi didukung oleh faktor bergesernya dominasi India yang dikenal sebagai sumber SDM TI, tawaran gajinya pun cukup menggiurkan. Bayangkan, untuk tenaga kerja TI kelas pemula sampai menengah, perusahaan di luar negeri berani menawarkan upah sekitar US$ 400 sampai US$ 600 (sekitar Rp 3, 6 juta sampai Rp 5,5 juta) per bulan. Di kelas yang sama di dalam negeri, paling mereka hanya ditawarkan gaji sekitar Rp 900.000 sampai Rp 2,5 juta per bulannya. Itu baru yang pemula. Untuk yang sudah punya keahlian spesifik dan berpengalaman, di luar negeri gajinya bisa mencapai US$ 2.000 - 2.500 (sekitar Rp 18,2 juta sampai 22,7 juta) per bulan. Tiga kali lipat dibanding di dalam negeri yang pasarannya sekitar Rp 7 sampai 10 juta.

Bidang kerja TI yang terbuka pun beragam dan hampir sama dengan yang ada di lokalan. Kebetulan kebanyakan yang dicari adalah engineer untuk networking dan wireless serta programmer. Kelihatannya trend yang sedang terjadi adalah orang atau perusahaan ingin membuat perangkat networking seperti produk dari Cisco. Untuk itu memang dibutuhkan banyak orang yang dapat membuat program dalam level C, C++ dengan real-time OS dan memiliki latar belakang (pengetahuan) di bidang telekomunikasi dan networking. Lowongan webmaster, UNIX administrator pun tidak sedikit. Jenis-jenis lowongan pekerjaan yang ditawarkan sangat banyak . Hanya saja, tenaga TI yang memiliki kemampuan terspesialisasi seringkali dicari, sayangnya agak susah mencari tenaga kerja yang sudah spesifik ini, dan kalau saya tuliskan mungkin daftar lowongan tersebut sepanjang artikel ini.

Nah, kalau melihat situasi seperti itu akan sangat mengenaskan jika orang Indonesia yang bergerak di bidang Teknologi Informasi tidak bisa mendapatkan pekerjaan semacam itu. Masalahnya memang tidak mudah. Mungkin memang kemampuan hasil perguruan tinggi di Indonesia tidak memadai ? Berapa banyak sih perguruan tinggi di Indonesia yang mampu menghasilkan "software engineer" yang handal ? Mungkin di Indonesia baru mampu menghasilkan programmer kelas papan bawah ? Jika memang anda programmer atau software engineer yang handal, apakah anda mengenal istilah-istilah ini: lex, yacc, compiler construction, grammer, token, CMM, dan sebagainya ?



Sebagai gambaran bahwa kebutuhan terhadap tenaga IT di bidang industri software baik di luar negeri maupun di dalam negeri, adalah sebagai berikut : Tenaga IT di luar negeri, untuk tahun 2015, diperkirakan 3,3 juta lapangan kerja. Sedangkan Tenaga IT domestik, berdasarkan proyeksi pertumbuhan industri pada tahun 2010 target produksi 8.195.33 US $, dengan asumsi produktifitas 25.000 perorang, dibutuhkan 327.813 orang



Selain contoh di atas, kita ambil negara lain seperti Jerman. Mengapa negara sekaliber Jerman mesti mendapat suplai tenaga TI dari luar negaranya ? Kurang sumber daya ? Dugaan itu ternyata betul. Perkembangan pesat teknologi informasi memang tidak hanya membuat ketar-ketir negara dunia ketiga, negara "dunia pertama" macam Jerman pun mulai merasakan akibatnya: kekurangan pakar TI yang tidak bisa didapatkan dari kalangan sendiri.

Maklum, jumlah yang dibutuhkan juga tak bisa dibilang sedikit. Tercatat saat ini sekitar 75.000 orang diperlukan oleh Jerman. Itu baru Jerman, belum negara lain. Tahukah Anda ternyata negara sebesar dan semaju Amerika Serikat pun masih mengimpor tenaga TI dari negara-negara di Asia, seperti India dan Cina. Nah, ini namanya peluang kan ?

Lowongan dari luar Indonesia untuk tenaga kerja TI kita banyak. yang tercatat pada kami bisa puluhan ribu lowongan," jelas Edi S. Tjahya, managing director JobsDB.com - sebuah portal informasi lowongan kerja. Lowongan sebanyak itu pun baru untuk wilayah Asia Pasifik. Secara kualitatif, kondisi sumber daya manusia Indonesia di bidang IT tidak kalah kualitas dibanding SDM dari negara seperti India sekalipun, papar Heru Nugroho, CEO PT Work IT Out, sebuah perusahaan penyalur tenaga kerja TI ke luar negeri.



Di dalam negeri sendiri untuk layanan informasi publik, tenaga IT yang dibutuhkan untuk sektor ini, ialah tenaga untuk mengelola e-government. Perkembangan kebutuhan terhadap tenaga untuk mengelola e-governmet akan sejalan dengan perkembangan implementasi e-governement. Sebagai gambaran menyeluruh terhadap kebutuhan ini, dapat dilihat dari jumlah lembaga pemerintah pusat, kabupaten/kota dan lembaga lainnya. Berdasarkan kasus pengelola e-government di Kalimantan Timur, yang mengelola e-governemt untuk 14 layanan, menggunakan tenaga IT 11 orang, maka untuk seluruh instansi pemerintah, memerlukan paling sedikitnya memerlukan 5.489.



Sedangkan layanan komersial, tenaga IT di bidang ini ialah personil yang bekerja di bidang jasa di berbagai bidang dimana transaksi dengan konsumen dan kliennya menggunakan dukungan teknologi telematika, seperti e-bisnis, e-health yang dikelola swasta, e-education yang dikelola swasta, media saiber. Untuk media saiber, jika seluruh media cetak dan elektronik yang ada sekarang akan mengembangkan media saiber dengan perkiraan satu media menggunakan 21 tenaga IT, maka dibutuhkan 40.341.



Sebagai gambaran kebutuhan tenaga IT di bidang industri di bawah ini dikemukakan dalam konsep blue book yang disusun ITB (lihat www.bhtv.web.id).



Proyeksi Umum Pertumbuhan Industri IT Indonesia (Tabel)



Asumsi 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Annual Growth 10% 20% 20% 40% 55% 65% 70% 70% 70%

Target Produksi

(Juta $) 500.00 550.00 660.00 792.00 1,108.80 1,718.64 2,835.76 4,820.79 8,195.33

Produktivitas

($/SDM) 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00 25,000.00



Target Total SDM 20,000 22,000 26,400 31,680 44,352 68,745 113,430 192,831 327,813



Tenaga Terampil

IT Specialists 6 4800 5280 6336 7603 10644 16499 27223 46279 78675

IT Professionals 3 2400 2640 3168 3802 5322 8249 13612 23140 39338

IT Administrators 1 800 880 1056 1267 1774 2750 4537 7713 13113



Tenaga Ahli

IT System Engineer 3 2400 2640 3168 3802 5322 8249 13612 23140 39338

IT Databases 2 1600 1760 2112 2534 3548 5500 9074 15426 26225

IT Application

Developer 5 4000 4400 5280 6336 8870 13749 22686 38566 65563

IT Solution

Developer 2 1600 1760 2112 2534 3548 5500 9074 15426 26225

IT Trainer 1 800 880 1056 1267 1774 2750 4537 7713 13113

Others 2 1600 1760 2112 2534 3548 5500 9074 15426 26225





Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan SDM di bidang IT dewasa ini diisi oleh tenaga-tenaga lulusan pendidikan tinggi baik dari jurusan teknologi informasi atau jurusan lainnya, sekolah kejurunan dan kursus-kusus di bidang telematika. Perguruan Tinggi di bidang TI atau telematika tampak beraneka ragam baik dari konsentrasi bidang kajian mapun jenjang kelembagaannya. Dilihat dari konsentrsai kajian, terdapat keanekaragaman antara lain, ilmu komputer, teknologi komputer, manajemen informatika, teknik informatika, sistem informasi, komputerisasi akutansi.



Jumlah perguruan Tinggi yang termasuk dalam kategori di atas berdasarkan data Depertemen Pendidikan Nasional, terdapat 476 Perguruan Tinggi (berdasarkan data Depdiknas). Jumlah lulusan di bidang ini, menurut data Depdiknas dari 256 Perguruan Tinggi negeri dan swasta setiap tahun mengasilkan 16.430



Data lain (sumber aptikom)menunjukkan pada saat ini terdapat sekitar 200 perguruan tinggi di Indonesia yang memiliki program studi terkait dengan teknologi informasi untuk jenjang pendidikan sarjana, magister, dan doktoral serta sekitar 300 perguruan tinggi untuk jenjang pendidikan diploma-III dan diploma-IV, yang keseluruhannya menghasilkan kurang lebih 25,000 lulusan setiap tahunnya. Banyak pengamat industri menilai bahwa jumlah tersebut sangat jauh dari kebutuhan industri yang sebenarnya, yang dapat mencapai sekitar 500,000 per tahun. Berdasarkan estimasi perencanaan, keberadaan ini baru akan dicapai pada tahun 2020 yaitu pada saat jumlah lulusan perguruan tinggi di Indonesia sekitar 6 juta orang per tahun (United Nations, 2002) – dengan asumsi bahwa sekitar 7% mahasiswa mengambil disiplin ilmu teknologi informasi.



Proyeksi Jumlah Mahasiswa Perguruan Tinggi di Indonesia 1995-2020



Tipe Perguruan Tinggi 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Negeri 500 590 715 850 1010 2020

Swasta 1400 2200 2900 3600 4200 4700

Lain -Lain 400 350 305 250 220 200

Total 2300 3140 3920 4700 5430 6100





Perlu diperhatikan bahwa keseluruhan program studi informatika tersebut merupakan komunitas pendidikan yang bertujuan untuk melahirkan kelompok yang oleh United Nations diistilahkan sebagai IT Workers atau orang-orang yang memiliki ilmu pengetahuan formal (akademis) terkait dengan bidang teknologi informasi. Sementara itu, program studi lain – seperti ekonomi, manajemen, kedokteran, akuntansi, sastra, hukum, dan lain sebagainya – yang dalam kurikulumnya memperkenalkan pula penggunaan teknologi informasi sebagai penunjang pelaksanaan aktivitas sehari-hari digolongkan sebagai institusi pendidikan yang menghasilkan ITEnabled Workers.



Upaya pengembangan SDM dari dimensi kualifikasinya diarahkan agar menjadi SDM yang profesional, sehingga pengembangan SDM mengarah pada pengembangan profesi atau berbasis kompetensi. Artinya diperlukan suatu pengembangan kurikulum yang disusun berdasarkan kolaborasi antara muatan lokal dengan muatan internasional, supaya lulusan PTS tersebut memiliki kompetensi yang diperlukan untuk bisa bekerja dan merebut peluang kerja di luar negeri.

Makin banyak perguruan tinggi swasta yang mengembangkan program gelar ganda. Strategi meluncurkan program gelar ganda di beberapa universitas dalam negeri semakin gencar dilakukan. Tak hanya universitas negeri namun juga melibatkan pihak swasta. Strategi ini diterapkan untuk mempersiapkan lulusannya di era perdagangan bebas dan mensejajarkan universitas dalam negeri dengan luar negeri. Program gelar ganda memungkinkan mahasiswa untuk mendapat dua gelar. Satu gelar dari universitas dalam negeri, sedangkan satu lagi dari luar. Adanya pengakuan dari luar negeri ini meningkatkan daya saing mahasiswa atau lulusan. Karena harus diakui, hingga kini lulusan dalam negeri masih dipandang sebelah mata di pasar bebas.

Dibukanya keran perdagangan bebas juga memungkinkan universitas luar negeri membuka cabang di Indonesia. Kompetisi tentu saja akan semakin ketat karena tidak hanya bersaing dengan sesama universitas lokal, para pendatang luar juga harus dihadapi. Kerjasama tersebut pada dasarnya merupakan upaya unversitas untuk diakui di dunia Internasional dan mensejajarkan diri dengan unversitas dari luar negeri. Untuk mendapatkan gelar ganda, mahasiswa bisa mengambil program 2+1, yaitu mengikuti dua tahun pengajaran di dalam negeri dan satu tahun di luar negeri. Atau dengan program 3+0, sehingga para mahasiswa tidak perlu pergi ke luar negeri. Pengajaran diberikan di dalam negeri dengan tenaga pengajar yang dimodifikasi antara lokal dan juga mendatangkan dosen dari luar negeri. Setelah selesai, mahasiswa akan mendapat gelar sarjana bachelor of Computer Science dari luar negeri, serta gelar Sarjana Komputer dari dalam negeri.

Dengan pola inilah, maka PTS dapat menghasilkan Sarjana Komputer Indonesia yang dapat GO International untuk meraih peluang kerja diluar negeri, sehingga akan meningkatkan citra Bangsa Indonesia, tidak hanya sebagai ekportir tenaga PRT akan tetapi juga sebagai exportir tenaga ahli di bidang teknologi informasi.

Yahoo! Messenger 11 Beta

19/11/2010



Tiga hari yang lalu Yahoo! merilis program chatting-nya yang terbaru, Yahoo! Messenger, versi ke-11. Walaupun masih beta, beragam fitur barunya patut dicoba. Cukup banyak perubahan yang saya lihat, dari awal ketika membukanya, tampilan messenger ini kini sudah menggunakan Aero Glass yang tersedia di Windows Vista dan 7, [Download] Yahoo! Messenger 11 Beta tapi untuk Windows XP tetap tidak berbeda jauh dengan versi 10.

Nah, ketika login, kita akan ditawarkan untuk menyimpan message history atau percakapan kita secara online. Ini adalah improvisasi dari fitur sebelumnya yang juga menyimpan message history, tapi hanya pada PC saja. [Download] Yahoo! Messenger 11 Beta

Fitur selanjutnya yang sangat menarik adalah terintegrasinya Facebook Chat, jadi kita dapat online Facebook Chat melalui Yahoo! Messenger! Fitur ini juga ditawarkan saat pertama login. [Download] Yahoo! Messenger 11 Beta Download Yahoo! Messenger 11 Beta

PEMANFAATAN TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DAN KOMUNIKASI SEBAGAI MEDIA PEMBELAJARAN

Maret 18, 2009 — Wahidin

Saat ini komputer bukan lagi merupakan barang mewah, alat ini sudah digunakan di berbagai bidang pekerjaan seperti halnya pada bidang pendidikan. Pada awalnya komputer dimanfaatkan di sekolah sebagai penunjang kelancaran pekerjaan bidang
administrasi dengan memanfaatkan software Microsoft word, excel dan access.
Dengan masuknya materi Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi dalam kurikulum baru, maka peranan komputer sebagai salah satu komponen utama dalam TIK mempunyai posisi yang sangat penting sebagai salah satu media pembelajaran. Kutipan dari Kurikulum untuk Mata Pelajaran Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi
· Visi mata pelajaran Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi yaitu agar siswa dapat dan terbiasa menggunakan perangkat Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi secara tepat dan optimal untuk mendapatkan dan memproses informasi dalam kegiatan belajar, bekerja, dan aktifitas lainnya sehingga siswa mampu berkreasi, mengembangkan sikap imaginatif, mengembangkan kemampuan eksplorasi mandiri, dan mudah beradaptasi dengan perkembangan baru di lingkungannya · Melalui mata pelajaran Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi diharapkan siswa dapat terlibat pada perubahan pesat dalam kehidupan yang mengalami penambahan dan perubahan dalam penggunaan beragam produk teknologi informasi dan komunikasi.
Siswa menggunakan perangkat Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi untuk mencari, mengeksplorasi, menganalisis, dan saling tukar informasi secara efisien dan efektif. Dengan menggunakan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, siswa akan dengan
cepat mendapatkan ide dan pengalaman dari berbagai kalangan. Penambahan kemampuan siswa karena penggunaan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi akan mengembangkan sikap inisiatif dan kemampuan belajar mandiri, sehingga siswa
dapat memutuskan dan mempertimbangkan sendiri kapan dan dimana penggunaan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi secara tepat dan optimal, termasuk apa implikasinya saat ini dan dimasa yang akan datang.

· Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) mencakup dua aspek, yaitu Teknologi Informasi dan Teknologi Komunikasi. Teknologi Informasi, meliputi segala hal yang berkaitan dengan proses, penggunaan sebagai alat bantu, manipulasi, dan pengelolaan informasi. Teknologi Komunikasi merupakan segala hal yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan alat bantu untuk memproses dan mentransfer data dari perangkat yang satu ke lainnya. Karena itu, Teknologi Informasi dan Teknologi Komunikasi adalah suatu padanan yang tidak terpisahkan yang mengandung pengertian luas tentang segala kegiatan yang terkait dengan pemrosesan, manipulasi, pengelolaan, dan transfer/pemindahan informasi antar media.
· Secara khusus, tujuan mempelajari Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi adalah:
1. Menyadarkan siswa akan potensi perkembangan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang terus berubah sehingga siswa dapat termotivasi untuk mengevaluasi dan mempelajari Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi sebagai dasar untuk belajar sepanjang hayat.
2. Memotivasi kemampuan siswa untuk bisa beradaptasi dan mengantisipasi perkembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, sehingga siswa bisa melaksanakan dan menjalani aktifitas kehidupan seharihari secara mandiri dan lebih percaya diri.
3. Mengembangkan kompetensi siswa dalam menggunakan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi untuk mendukung kegiatan belajar, bekerja, dan berbagai aktifitas dalam kehidupan seharihari.
4. Mengembangkan kemampuan belajar berbasis Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, sehingga proses pembelajaran dapat lebih optimal, menarik, dan mendorong siswa terampil dalam berkomunikasi, terampil mengorganisasi informasi, dan terbiasa bekerjasama.
5. Mengembangkan kemampuan belajar mandiri, berinisiatif, inovatif, kreatif, dan bertanggungjawab dalam penggunaan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi untuk pembelajaran, bekerja, dan pemecahan masalah seharihari.

Dengan melihat isi dari kurikulum tersebut, kita harus mengintegrasikan TIK dalam proses belajar mengajar di madrasah bukan hanya untuk mata pelajaran teknologi dan informasi saja. Melihat kondisi TIK pada saat ini dan perkembangannya di masa datang, kita harus mempersiapkan diri dan melakukan perencanaan yang matang dalam mengimplementasikan TIK di madrasah. Jika kita tidak memulainya sekarang maka madrasah sebagai salah satu institusi pendidikan selain sekolah yang berada dibawah Depdiknas akan tertinggal oleh sekolah lain. Jika ini terjadi, usaha kita akan semakin berat untuk mensejajarkan madrasah dengan sekolah lain. Di satu sisi, kita sedang berusaha mengejar ketertinggalan dalam mata pelajaran khususnya MIPA dan BahasaInggris, di sisi lain TIK akan membuat kita tertinggal semakin jauh. Mengamati Program Pengembagan TIK yang dilakukan Depdiknas Untuk mengejar ketertinggalan pemanfaatan TIK di sekolah dari negara lain, saat iniDepdiknas mempunyai program pengembangan TIK secara besarbesaran.
Ada tiga posisi penting di Depdiknas dalam program pengembangan TIK, yaitu:
1. Bidang kejuruan, TIK menjadi salah satu jurusan di SMK. Pengembangan TIK secara teknis baik hardware dan software masuk dalam kurikum pendidikan. Dibentuknya ICT center di seluruh Indonesia. Untuk menghubungkan sekolahsekolah di sekitar ICT center dibangun WAN (Wireless Area Network) Kota.
2. Pustekkom, sebagai salah satu ujung tombak dalam pengembangan TV pendidikan interaktif, Elearning dan ESMA. Program ini bertujuan untuk mempersempit jurang perbedaan kualitas pendidikan antara kota besar dengan daerah.
3. Jardiknas (Jejaring Pendidikan Nasional), bertujuan untuk mengintegrasikan kedua program di atas agar terbentuk sebuah jaringan yang menghubungkan semua sekolah di Indonesia. Sehingga diperkirakan di masa depan semua sekolah di Indonesia akan terkoneksi dengan internet. Melihat program yang diadakan oleh Depdiknas kita bisa memanfaatkan fasilitas tersebut karena bersifat terbuka.

Pengembangan TIK di Madrasah secara Mandiri
Kita belum terlambat untuk mempersiapkan diri dalam penguasaan TIK sebagai media pembelajaran di madrasah. Mulai saat ini pihak madrasah dan Majlis Madrasah harus membuat sebuah program pengembangan TIK secara menyeluruh. Ada beberapa poin untuk membuat suatu perencanaan pengembangan TIK, diantaranya:
1. Mempersatukan visi dan misi pengembangan TIK yang ingin dicapai antara Kepala sekolah, guru dan majlis madrasah.
2. Pembentukan Komite Teknologi (Organisasi Labkom) yang mandiri
3. Mengidentifikasi infrastruktur lembaga, baik hardware, software maupun sistem dan jaringan yang sudah dimiliki
4. Penentuan hardware dan software yang akan digunakan atau dikembangkan.
5. Mengidentifikasi SDM yang dimiliki
6. Menentukan bentuk pelatihan penguasaan TIK baik untuk guru dan staf lainnya.
7. Adanya Time schedule yang jelas untuk pencapaian program
8. Penentuan Investasi yang diperlukan secara berkala tiap tahun
9. Mengidentifikasi perkembangan software dan kurikulum baru
10. Mengadakan revisi perencanaan disesuaikan dengan perkembangan yang terjadi.
Dengan perencanaan yang matang, kita bisa mengembangkan TIK secara bertahap di madrasah agar tidak tertinggal dari sekolah lain. Program yang dibuat haru dilaksanakan secara berkelanjutan meskipun terjadi pergantian kepala dan majilis madrasah. Pemanfaatan TIK Sebagai Media Pembelajaran TIK bukan merupakan teknologi yang berdiri sendiri, tetapi merupakan kombinasi dari hardware dan software.Ada hal penting yang harus diperhatikan dalam memanfaatkan TIK sebagai media pembelajaran yaitu hardware dan software yang tersedia dan jenis metode pembelajaran yang akan digunakan. Beberapa pemanfaatan TIK dalam pembelajaran diantaranya:
1. Presentasi
Presentasi merupakan cara yang sudah lama digunakan, dengan menggunakan OHP atau chart. Peralatan yang digunakan sekarang biasanya menggunakan sebuah komputer/laptop dan LCD proyektor. Ada beberapa keuntungan jika kita memanfaatkan TIK diantaranya kita bisa menampilkan animasi dan film, sehingga tampilannya menjadi lebih menarik dan memudahkan siswa untuk menangkap materi yang kita sampaikan. Software yang paling banyak digunakan
untuk presentasi adalah Microsoft Powerpoint. Ada beberapa hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam pembuatan bahan presentasi,
diantaranya:
a. Jangan terlalu banyak tulisan yang harus ditampilkan.
b. Tulisan jangan terlalu kecil karena harus dilihat oleh banyak siswa.
c. Perbanyak memasukkan gambar dan animasi
d. Usahakan bentuk presentasi yang interaktif.
2. Demonstrasi
Demontrasi biasanya digunakan untuk menampilkan suatu kegiatan di depan kelas, misalnya eksperimen. Kita bisa membuat suatu film caracara melakukan suatu kegiatan misalnya cara melakukan pengukuran dengan mikrometer yang benar atau mengambil sebagian kegiatan yang penting. Sehingga dengan cara ini siswa bisa kita arahkan untuk melakukan kegiatan yang benar atau mengambil kesimpulan dari kegiatan tersebut.
Cara lain adalah memanfaatkan media internet, kita bisa menampilkan animasi yang berhubungan dengan materi yang kita ajarkan (meskipun tidak semuanya tersedia). Sebagai contoh untuk menampilkan arah vektor dari perkalian silang kita bisa mengakses internet dengan alamat

http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/Flash/ClassMechanics/

RightHandRule/RightHandRule.html
3. Virtual Experiment
Maksud dari virtual eksperimen disini adalah suatu kegiatan laboratorium yang dipindahkan di depan komputer. Anak bisa melakukan beberapa eksperimen dengan memanfaatkan software virtual eksperimen misalnya Crocodile Clips. Software ini bisa didownload di http://www.crocodileclips. com/s3_1.jsp , tetapi kita harus register dulu untuk mendapatkan active code yang berlaku untuk satu bulan.
Metode ini bisa digunakan jika kita tidak mempunyai laboratorium IPA yang lengkap atau digunakan sebelum melakukan eksperimen yang sesungguhnya.
4. Kelas virtual
Maksud kelas virtual di sini adalah siswa belajar mandiri yang berbasiskan web, misalnya menggunakan moodle. Saya berikan contoh bentuk kelas maya yang sedang kami kembangkan di MAN 2 Ciamis.Pada kelas maya ini siswa akan mendapatkan materi, tugas dan test secara online. Kita sebagai guru memperoleh kemudahan dalam memeriksa tugas dan menilai hasil ujian siswa. Terutama hasil ujian siswa akan dinilai secara otomatis.
Sebenarnya banyak bentuk pemanfaatan TIK lainnya yang dapat digunakan untuk membantu siswa dalam proses belajar mengajar. Tetapi semua itu tergantung kepada kita bagaimana cara memanfaatkannya.

sejarah tekhnologi infirmasi

Teknologi informasi
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Perubahan tertunda ditampilkan di halaman iniBelum Diperiksa
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Ada usul agar artikel atau bagian dari halaman Kelebihan teknologi informasi digital digabungkan ke halaman atau bagian ini. (diskusikan)
Ada usul agar artikel atau bagian dari halaman Teknologi Informasi Komunikasi digabungkan ke halaman atau bagian ini. (diskusikan)

Teknologi Informasi dilihat dari kata penyusunnya adalah teknologi dan informasi. Secara mudahnya teknologi informasi adalah hasil rekayasa manusia terhadap proses penyampaian informasi dari bagian pengirim ke penerima sehingga pengiriman informasi tersebut akan lebih cepat, lebih luas penyebarannya, dan lebih lama penyimpanannya.
[sunting] Sejarah

Pada awal sejarah, manusia bertukar informasi melalui bahasa. Maka bahasa adalah teknologi, bahasa memungkinkan seseorang memahami informasi yang disampaikan oleh orang lain. Tetapi bahasa yang disampaikan dari mulut ke mulut hanya bertahan sebentar saja, yaitu hanya pada saat si pengirim menyampaikan informasi melalui ucapannya itu saja. Setelah ucapan itu selesai, maka informasi yang berada di tangan si penerima itu akan dilupakan dan tidak bisa disimpan lama. Selain itu jangkauan suara juga terbatas. Untuk jarak tertentu, meskipun masih terdengar, informasi yang disampaikan lewat bahasa suara akan terdegradasi bahkan hilang sama sekali.

Setelah itu teknologi penyampaian informasi berkembang melalui gambar. Dengan gambar jangkauan informasi bisa lebih jauh. Gambar ini bisa dibawa-bawa dan disampaikan kepada orang lain. Selain itu informasi yang ada akan bertahan lebih lama. Beberapa gambar peninggalan zaman purba masih ada sampai sekarang sehingga manusia sekarang dapat (mencoba) memahami informasi yang ingin disampaikan pembuatnya.

Ditemukannya alfabet dan angka arabik memudahkan cara penyampaian informasi yang lebih efisien dari cara yang sebelumnya. Suatu gambar yang mewakili suatu peristiwa dibuat dengan kombinasi alfabet, atau dengan penulisan angka, seperti MCMXLIII diganti dengan 1943. Teknologi dengan alfabet ini memudahkan dalam penulisan informasi itu.

Kemudian, teknologi percetakan memungkinkan pengiriman informasi lebih cepat lagi. Teknologi elektronik seperti radio, televisi, komputer mengakibatkan informasi menjadi lebih cepat tersebar di area yang lebih luas dan lebih lama tersimpan.
[sunting] Lihat pula

Linguistics

Linguistics 101: An Introduction to the Study of Language

(Source: An Introduction to Language by Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman, 6th Ed.)

Part One: Introduction to Linguistics

Every human knows at least one language, spoken or signed. Linguistics is the science of language, including the sounds, words, and grammar rules. Words in languages are finite, but sentences are not. It is this creative aspect of human language that sets it apart from animal languages, which are essentially responses to stimuli.

The rules of a language, also called grammar, are learned as one acquires a language. These rules include phonology, the sound system, morphology, the structure of words, syntax, the combination of words into sentences, semantics, the ways in which sounds and meanings are related, and the lexicon, or mental dictionary of words. When you know a language, you know words in that language, i.e. sound units that are related to specific meanings. However, the sounds and meanings of words are arbitrary. For the most part, there is no relationship between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its meaning.

Knowing a language encompasses this entire system, but this knowledge (called competence) is different from behavior (called performance.) You may know a language, but you may also choose to not speak it. Although you are not speaking the language, you still have the knowledge of it. However, if you don't know a language, you cannot speak it at all.

There are two types of grammars: descriptive and prescriptive. Descriptive grammars represent the unconscious knowledge of a language. English speakers, for example, know that "me likes apples" is incorrect and "I like apples" is correct, although the speaker may not be able to explain why. Descriptive grammars do not teach the rules of a language, but rather describe rules that are already known. In contrast, prescriptive grammars dictate what a speaker's grammar should be and they include teaching grammars, which are written to help teach a foreign language.

There are about 5,000 languages in the world right now (give or take a few thousand), and linguists have discovered that these languages are more alike than different from each other. There are universal concepts and properties that are shared by all languages, and these principles are contained in the Universal Grammar, which forms the basis of all possible human languages.

Part Two: Morphology and Syntax

Morphemes are the minimal units of words that have a meaning and cannot be subdivided further. There are two main types: free and bound. Free morphemes can occur alone and bound morphemes must occur with another morpheme. An example of a free morpheme is "bad", and an example of a bound morpheme is "ly." It is bound because although it has meaning, it cannot stand alone. It must be attached to another morpheme to produce a word.

Free morpheme: bad
Bound morpheme: ly
Word: badly

When we talk about words, there are two groups: lexical (or content) and function (or grammatical) words. Lexical words are called open class words and include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. New words can regularly be added to this group. Function words, or closed class words, are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns; and new words cannot be (or are very rarely) added to this class.

Affixes are often the bound morpheme. This group includes prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and circumfixes. Prefixes are added to the beginning of another morpheme, suffixes are added to the end, infixes are inserted into other morphemes, and circumfixes are attached to another morpheme at the beginning and end. Following are examples of each of these:

Prefix: re- added to do produces redo
Suffix: -or added to edit produces editor
Infix: -um- added to fikas (strong) produces fumikas (to be strong) in Bontoc
Circumfix: ge- and -t to lieb (love) produces geliebt (loved) in German

There are two categories of affixes: derivational and inflectional. The main difference between the two is that derivational affixes are added to morphemes to form new words that may or may not be the same part of speech and inflectional affixes are added to the end of an existing word for purely grammatical reasons. In English there are only eight total inflectional affixes:
-s 3rd person singular present she waits
-ed past tense she waited
-ing progressive she's eating
-en past participle she has eaten
-s plural three apples
-'s possessive Lori's son
-er comparative you are taller
-est superlative you are the shortest

The other type of bound morphemes are called bound roots. These are morphemes (and not affixes) that must be attached to another morpheme and do not have a meaning of their own. Some examples are ceive in perceive and mit in submit.

English Morphemes

1. Free
1. Open Class
2. Closed Class
2. Bound
1. Affix
1. Derivational
2. Inflectional
2. Root

There are six ways to form new words. Compounds are a combination of words, acronyms are derived from the initials of words, back-formations are created from removing what is mistakenly considered to be an affix, abbreviations or clippings are shortening longer words, eponyms are created from proper nouns (names), and blending is combining parts of words into one.

Compound: doghouse
Acronym: NBA (National Basketball Association) or scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)
Back-formation: edit from editor
Abbreviation: phone from telephone
Eponym: sandwich from Earl of Sandwich
Blending: smog from smoke and fog

Grammar is learned unconsciously at a young age. Ask any five year old, and he will tell you that "I eat" and "you eat," but his "dog eats." But a human's syntactical knowledge goes farther than what is grammatical and what is not. It also accounts for ambiguity, in which a sentence could have two meanings, and enables us to determine grammatical relationships such as subject and direct object. Although we may not consciously be able to define the terms, we unconsciously know how to use them in sentences.

Syntax, of course, depends on lexical categories (parts of speech.) You probably learned that there are 8 main parts of speech in grammar school. Linguistics takes a different approach to these categories and separates words into morphological and syntactic groups. Linguistics analyzes words according to their affixes and the words that follow or precede them. Hopefully, the following definitions of the parts of speech will make more sense and be of more use than the old definitions of grammar school books.

Open Class Words
Nouns _____ + plural endings
"dogs" Det. Adj. _____ (this is called a Noun Phrase)
"the big dog"
Verbs ____ + tense endings
"speaks" Aux. ____ (this is called a Verb Phrase)
"have spoken"
Adjectives ____ + er / est
"small" Det. ____ Noun
"the smaller child"
Adverbs Adj. + ly
"quickly" ____ Adj. or Verb or Adv.
"quickly ran"

Closed Class Words
Determiners a, an, the, this, that, these,
those, pronouns, quantities ____ Adj. Noun
"this blue book"
Auxiliary Verbs forms of be, have, may,
can, shall NP ____ VP
"the girl is swimming"
Prepositions at, in, on, under, over, of ____ NP (this is called a Prepositional Phrase)
"in the room"
Conjunctions and, but, or N or V or Adj. ____ N or V or Adj.
"apples and oranges"

Subcategorization defines the restrictions on which syntactic categories (parts of speech) can or cannot occur within a lexical item. These additional specifications of words are included in our mental lexicon. Verbs are the most common categories that are subcategorized. Verbs can either be transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs take a direct object, while intransitive verbs take an indirect object (usually they need a preposition before the noun).
Transitive verb: to eat I ate an apple. (direct object)
Intransitive: to sleep I was sleeping in the bed. (indirect object)

Individual nouns can also be subcategorized. For example, the noun idea can be followed by a Prepositional Phrase or that and a sentence. But the noun compassion can only be followed by a Prepositional Phrase and not a sentence. (Ungrammatical sentences are marked with asterisks.)
the idea of stricter laws his compassion for the animals
the idea that stricter laws are necessary *his compassion that the animals are hurt

Phrase structure rules describe how phrases are formed and in what order. These rules define the following:
Noun Phrase (NP) (Det.) (Adj.) Noun (PP)
Verb Phrase (VP) Verb (NP) (PP)
Prepositional Phrase (PP) Prep. NP
Sentence (S) NP VP

The parentheses indicate the categories are optional. Verbs don't always have to be followed by prepositional phrases and nouns don't always have to be preceded by adjectives.

Passive Sentences
The difference between the two sentences "Mary hired Bill" and "Bill was hired by Mary" is that the first is active and the second is passive. In order to change an active sentence into a passive one, the object of the active must become the subject of the passive. The verb in the passive sentence becomes a form of "be" plus the participle form of the main verb. And the subject of the active becomes the object of the passive preceded by the word "by."

Active Passive
Mary hired Bill. Bill was hired by Mary.
Subject + Verb + Object Object + "be" + Verb + by + Subject

Part Three: Phonetics and Phonology

There are three types of the study of the sounds of language. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of sounds. Auditory Phonetics is the study of the way listeners perceive sounds. Articulatory Phonetics (the type this lesson is concerned with) is the study of how the vocal tracts produce the sounds.

The orthography (spelling) of words in misleading, especially in English. One sound can be represented by several different combinations of letters. For example, all of the following words contain the same vowel sound: he, believe, Lee, Caesar, key, amoeba, loudly, machine, people, and sea. The following poem illustrates this fact of English humorously (note the pronunciation of the bold words):

I take it you already know of tough and bough and cough and dough?
Some may stumble, but not you, on hiccough, thorough, slough, and through?
So now you are ready, perhaps, to learn of less familiar traps?
Beware of heard, a dreadful word, that looks like beard, but sounds like bird.
And dead, it's said like bed, not bead; for goodness' sake, don't call it deed!
Watch out for meat and great and threat. (They rhyme with suite and straight and debt.)
A moth is not a moth in mother, nor both in bother, broth in brother.
And here is not a match for there, nor dear and fear, for bear and pear.
And then there's dose and rose and lose - just look them up - and goose and choose
And cork and work and card and ward and font and front and word and sword
And do and go, then thwart and cart, come, come! I've hardly made a start.
A dreadful language? Why man alive! I've learned to talk it when I was five.
And yet to write it, the more I tried, I hadn't learned it at fifty-five.
- Author Unknown

The discrepancy between spelling and sounds led to the formation of the International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA.) The symbols used in this alphabet can be used to represent all sounds of all human languages. The following is the English Phonetic alphabet. You might want to memorize all of these symbols, as most foreign language dictionaries use the IPA.

Phonetic Alphabet for English Pronunciation p pill d dill h heal ʌ but
b bill n neal l leaf aj light
m mill s seal r reef ɔj boy
f feel z zeal j you ɪ bit
v veal č chill w witch ɛ bet
θ thigh ǰ Jill i beet ʊ foot
ð thy ʍ which e bait ɔ awe
š shill k kill u boot a bar
ž azure g gill o boat ə sofa
t till ŋ ring æ bat aw cow

Some speakers of English pronounce the words which and witch differently, but if you pronounce both words identically, just use w for both words. And the sounds /ʌ/ and /ə/ are pronounced the same, but the former is used in stressed syllables, while the latter is used in unstressed syllables. This list does not even begin to include all of the phonetic symbols though. One other symbol is the glottal stop, ʔ which is somewhat rare in English. Some linguists in the United States traditionally use different symbols than the IPA symbols. These are listed below.
U.S. IPA
š ʃ
ž ʒ
č tʃ
ǰ dʒ
U ʊ

The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air. Air is pushed through the lungs, larynx (vocal folds) and vocal tract (the oral and nasal cavities.) Sounds produced by using air from the lungs are called pulmonic sounds. If the air is pushed out, it is called egressive. If the air is sucked in, it is called ingressive. Sounds produced by ingressive airstreams are ejectives, implosives, and clicks. These sounds are common among African and American Indian languages. The majority of languages in the world use pulmonic egressive airstream mechanisms, and I will present only these types of sounds in this lesson.

Consonants
Consonants are produced as air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis (the opening between the vocal cords) and out the mouth. They are classified according to voicing, aspiration, nasal/oral sounds, places of articulation and manners of articulation. Voicing is whether the vocal folds vibrate or not. The sound /s/ is called voiceless because there is no vibration, and the sound /z/ is called voiced because the vocal folds do vibrate (you can feel on your neck if there is vibration.) Only three sounds in English have aspiration, the sounds /b/, /p/ and /t/. An extra puff of air is pushed out when these sounds begin a word or stressed syllable. Hold a piece of paper close to your mouth when saying the words pin and spin. You should notice extra air when you say pin. Aspiration is indicated in writing with a superscript h, as in /pʰ/. Nasal sounds are produced when the velum (the soft palate located in the back of the roof of the mouth) is lowered and air is passed through the nose and mouth. Oral sounds are produced when the velum is raised and air passes only through the mouth.

Places of Articulation
Bilabial: lips together
Labiodental: lower lip against front teeth
Interdental: tongue between teeth
Alveolar: tongue near alveolar ridge on roof of mouth (in between teeth and hard palate)
Palatal: tongue on hard palate
Velar: tongue near velum
Glottal: space between vocal folds

The following sound is not found in the English language, although it is common in languages such as French and Arabic:
Uvular: raise back of tongue to uvula (the appendage hanging down from the velum)

Manners of Articulation
Stop: obstruct airstream completely
Fricative: partial obstruction with friction
Affricate: stop airstream, then release
Liquids: partial obstruction, no friction
Glides: little or no obstruction, must occur with a vowel

You should practice saying the sounds of the English alphabet to see if you can identify the places of articulation in the mouth. The sounds are described by voicing, place and then manner of articulation, so the sound /j/ would be called a voiced palatal glide and the sound /s/ would be called a voiceless alveolar fricative.

Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop (oral)

p
b


t
d


k
g

Nasal (stop)

m


n


ŋ

Fricative

f
v


θ
ð


s
z


š
ž


h
Affricate

č
ǰ

Glide

ʍ
w



j


ʍ
w


h
Liquid

l r


For rows that have two consonants, the top consonant is voiceless and the bottom consonant is voiced. Nasal stops are all voiced, as are liquids. The sound /j/ is also voiced. If sounds are in two places on the chart, that means they can be pronounced either way.

Vowels
Vowels are produced by a continuous airstream and all are voiced. They are classified according to height of the tongue, part of tongue involved, and position of the lips. The tongue can be high, mid, or low; and the part of the tongue used can be front, central or back. Only four vowels are produced with rounded lips and only four vowels are considered tense instead of lax. The sound /a/ would be written as a low back lax unrounded vowel. Many languages also have vowels called diphthongs, a sequence of two sounds, vowel + glide. Examples in English include oy in boy and ow in cow. In addition, vowels can be nasalized when they occur before nasal consonants. A diacritic mark [~] is placed over the vowel to show this. The vowel sounds in bee and bean are considered different because the sound in bean is nasalized.
Part of Tongue
Front Central Back
Tongue
Height High

i
ɪ


u
ʊ
Mid

e
ɛ


ə
ʌ


o
ɔ
Low

æ


a

The bold vowels are tense, and the italic vowels are rounded. English also includes the diphthongs: [aj] as in bite, [aw] as in cow, and [oj] as in boy.

For the complete IPA chart with symbols for the sounds of every human language, please visit the International Phonetic Association's website. And you're looking for a way to type English IPA symbols online, please visit ipa.typeit.org

Major Classes of Sounds (Distinctive Features)
All of the classes of sounds described above can be put into more general classes that include the patterning of sounds in the world's languages. Continuant sounds indicate a continuous airflow, while non-continuant sounds indicate total obstruction of the airstream. Obstruent sounds do not allow air to escape through the nose, while sonorant sounds have a relatively free airflow through the mouth or nose. The following table summarizes this information:

Obstruent Sonorant
Continuant fricatives liquids, glides, vowels
Non-Continuant oral stops, affricates nasal stops


Major Class Features
[+ Consonantal] consonants
[- Consonantal] vowels

[+Sonorant] nasals, liquids, glides, vowels
[- Sonorant] stops, fricatives, affricates (obstruents)

[+ Approximant] glides [j, w]
[- Approximant] everything else

Voice Features
[+ Voice] voiced
[- Voice] voiceless

[+ Spread Glottis] aspirated [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]
[- Spread Glottis] unaspirated

[+ Constricted Glottis] ejectives, implosives
[- Constricted Glottis] everything else

Manner Features
[+ Continuant] fricatives [f, v, s, z, š, ž, θ, ð]
[- Continuant] stops [p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ]

[+ Nasal] nasal consonants [m, n, ŋ]
[- Nasal] all oral consonants

[+ Lateral] [l]
[- Lateral] [r]

[+ Delayed Release] affricates [č, ǰ]
[- Delayed Release] stops [p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ]

[+ Strident] “noisy” fricatives [f, v, s, z, š, ž]
[- Strident] [?, ð, h]

Place Features
[Labial] involves lips [f, v, p, b, w]

[Coronal] alveolar ridge to palate [θ, ð, s, z, t, d, š, ž, n, r, l]
[+ Anterior] interdentals and true alveolars
[- Anterior] retroflex and palatals [š, ž, č, ǰ, j]

[Dorsal] from velum back [k, g, ŋ]

[Glottal] in larynx [h, ʔ]

Vowels
Height [± high] [± low]
Backness [± back]
Lip Rounding [± round]
Tenseness [± tense]

Whereas phonetics is the study of sounds and is concerned with the production, audition and perception of of speech sounds (called phones), phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language and operates at the level of sound systems and abstract sound units. Knowing the sounds of a language is only a small part of phonology. This importance is shown by the fact that you can change one word into another by simply changing one sound. Consider the differences between the words time and dime. The words are identical except for the first sound. [t] and [d] can therefore distinguish words, and are called contrasting sounds. They are distinctive sounds in English, and all distinctive sounds are classified as phonemes.

Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs are words with different meanings that have the same sounds except for one. These contrasting sounds can either be consonants or vowels. The words pin and bin are minimal pairs because they are exactly the same except for the first sound. The words read and rude are also exactly the same except for the vowel sound. The examples from above, time and dime, are also minimal pairs. In effect, words with one contrastive sound are minimal pairs. Another feature of minimal pairs is overlapping distribution. Sounds that occur in phonetic environments that are identical are said to be in overlapping distribution. The sounds of [ɪn] from pin and bin are in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words. The same is true for three and through. The sounds of [θr] is in overlapping distribution because they occur in both words as well.

Free Variation
Some words in English are pronounced differently by different speakers. This is most noticeable among American English speakers and British English speakers, as well as dialectal differences. This is evidenced in the ways neither, for example, can be pronounced. American English pronunciation is [niðər], while British English pronunciation is [najðər].

Phones and Allophones
Phonemes are not physical sounds. They are abstract mental representations of the phonological units of a language. Phones are considered to be any single speech sound of which phonemes are made. Phonemes are a family of phones regarded as a single sound and represented by the same symbol. The different phones that are the realization of a phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme. The use of allophones is not random, but rule-governed. No one is taught these rules as they are learned subconsciously when the native language is acquired. To distinguish between a phoneme and its allophones, I will use slashes // to enclose phonemes and brackets [] to enclose allophones or phones. For example, [i] and [ĩ] are allophones of the phoneme /i/; [ɪ] and [ɪ̃] are allophones of the phoneme /ɪ/.

Complementary Distribution
If two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, they are said to be in complementary distribution. These sounds cannot occur in minimal pairs and they cannot change the meaning of otherwise identical words. If you interchange the sounds, you will only change the pronunciation of the words, not the meaning. Native speakers of the language regard the two allophones as variations of the same sound. To hear this, start to say the word cool (your lips should be pursed in anticipation of /u/ sound), but then say kill instead (with your lips still pursed.) Your pronunciation of kill should sound strange because cool and kill are pronounced with different allophones of the phoneme /k/.

Nasalized vowels are allophones of the same phoneme in English. Take, for example, the sounds in bad and ban. The phoneme is /æ/, however the allophones are [æ] and [æ̃]. Yet in French, nasalized vowels are not allophones of the same phonemes. They are separate phonemes. The words beau [bo] and bon [bõ] are not in complementary distribution because they are minimal pairs and have contrasting sounds. Changing the sounds changes the meaning of the words. This is just one example of differences between languages.

Phonological Rules
Assimilation: sounds become more like neighboring sounds, allowing for ease of articulation or pronunciation; such as vowels are nasalized before nasal consonants
- Harmony: non-adjacent vowels become more similar by sharing a feature or set of features (common in Finnish)
- Gemination: sound becomes identical to an adjacent sound
- Regressive Assimilation: sound on left is the target, and sound on right is the trigger

Dissimilation: sounds become less like neighboring sounds; these rules are quite rare, but one example in English is [fɪfθ] becoming [fɪft] (/f/ and /θ/ are both fricatives, but /t/ is a stop)

Epenthesis: insertion of a sound, e.g. Latin "homre" became Spanish "hombre"
- Prothesis: insertion of vowel sound at beginning of word
- Anaptyxis: vowel sound with predictable quality is inserted word-internally
- Paragoge: insertion of vowel sound at end of word
- Excrescence: consonant sound inserted between other consonants (also called stop-intrusion)

Deletion: deletion of a sound; e.g. French word-final consonants are deleted when the next word begins with a consonant (but are retained when the following word begins with a vowel)
- Aphaeresis: vowel sound deleted at beginning of word
- Syncope: vowel sound is deleted word-internally
- Apocope: vowel sound deleted at end of word

Metathesis: reordering of phonemes; in some dialects of English, the word asked is pronounced [æks]; children's speech shows many cases of metathesis such as aminal for animal

Lenition: consonant changes to a weaker manner of articulation; voiced stop becomes a fricative, fricative becomes a glide, etc.

Palatalization: sound becomes palatal when adjacent to a front vowel Compensatory Lengthening: sound becomes long as a result of sound loss, e.g. Latin "octo" became Italian "otto"

Assimilation in English
An interesting observation of assimilation rules is evidenced in the formation of plurals and the past tense in English. When pluralizing nouns, the last letter is pronounced as either [s], [z], or [əz]. When forming past tenses of verbs, the -ed ending is pronounced as either [t], [d], [əd]. If you were to sort words into three columns, you would be able to tell why certain words are followed by certain sounds:

Plural nouns Hopefully, you can determine which consonants produce which sounds. In the nouns, /s/ is added after voiceless consonants, and /z/ is added after voiced consonants. /əz/ is added after sibilants. For the verbs, /t/ is added after voiceless consonants, and /d/ is added after voiced consonants. /əd/ is added after alveolar stops. The great thing about this is that no one ever taught you this in school. But thanks to linguistics, you now know why there are different sounds (because of assimiliation rules, the consonants become more like their neighboring consonants.)
/s/ /z/ /əz/
cats dads churches
tips bibs kisses
laughs dogs judges

Past Tense
/t/ /d/ /əd/
kissed loved patted
washed jogged waded
coughed teased seeded

Writing Rules
A general phonological rule is A → B / D __ E (said: A becomes B when it occurs between D and E) Other symbols in rule writing include: C = any obstruent, V = any vowel, Ø = nothing, # = word boundary, ( ) = optional, and { } = either/or. A deletion rule is A → Ø / E __ (A is deleted when it occurs after E) and an insertion rule is Ø → A / E __ (A is inserted when it occurs after E).

Alpha notation is used to collapse similar assimilation rules into one. C → [Α voice] / __ [Α voice] (An obstruent becomes voiced when it occurs before a voiced obstruent AND an obstruent becomes voiceless when it occurs before a voiceless obstruent.) Similarly, it can be used for dissimilation rules too. C → [-Α voice] / __ [Α voice] (An obstruent becomes voiced when it occurs before a voiceless obstruent AND an obstruent becomes voiceless when it occurs before a voiced obstruent.) Gemination rules are written as C1C2 → C2C2 (for example, pd → dd)

Syllable Structure
There are three peaks to a syllable: nucleus (vowel), onset (consonant before nucleus) and coda (consonant after nucleus.) The onset and coda are both optional, meaning that a syllable could contain a vowel and nothing else. The nucleus is required in every syllable by definition. The order of the peaks is always onset - nucleus - coda. All languages permit open syllables (Consonant + Vowel), but not all languages allow closed syllables (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant). Languages that only allow open syllables are called CV languages. In addition to not allowing codas, some CV languages also have constraints on the number of consonants allowed in the onset.

The sonority profile dictates that sonority must rise to the nucleus and fall to the coda in every language. The sonority scale (from most to least sonorous) is vowels - glides - liquids - nasals - obstruents. Sonority must rise in the onset, but the sounds cannot be adjacent to or share a place of articulation (except [s] in English) nor can there be more than two consonants in the onset. This explains why English allows some consonant combinations, but not others. For example, price [prajs] is a well-formed syllable and word because the sonority rises in the onset (p, an obstruent, is less sonorous than r, a liquid); however, rpice [rpajs] is not a syllable in English because the sonority does not rise in the onset.

The Maximality Condition states that onsets are as large as possible up to the well-formedness rules of a language. Onsets are always preferred over codas when syllabifying words. There are also constraints that state the maximum number of consonants between two vowels is four; onsets and codas have two consonants maximally; and onsets and codas can be bigger only at the edges of words.

Part Four: Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantics
Lexical semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning of relationships among words, while phrasal semantics is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word. Pragmatics is the study of how context affects meaning, such as how sentences are interpreted in certain situations.

Semantic properties are the components of meanings of words. For example, the semantic property "human" can be found in many words such as parent, doctor, baby, professor, widow, and aunt. Other semantic properties include animate objects, male, female, countable items and non-countable items.

The -nyms
Homonyms: different words that are pronounced the same, but may or may not be spelled the same (to, two, and too)

Polysemous: word that has multiple meanings that are related conceptually or historically (bear can mean to tolerate or to carry or to support)

Homograph: different words that are spelled identically and possibly pronounced the same; if they are pronounced the same, they are also homonyms (pen can mean writing utensil or cage)

Heteronym: homographs that are pronounced differently (dove the bird and dove the past tense of dive)

Synonym: words that mean the same but sound different (couch and sofa)

Antonym: words that are opposite in meaning
Complementary pairs: alive and dead
Gradable pairs: big and small (no absolute scale)

Hyponym: set of related words (red, white, yellow, blue are all hyponyms of "color")

Metonym: word used in place of another to convey the same meaning (jock used for athlete, Washington used for American government, crown used for monarcy)

Retronym: expressions that are no longer redundant (silent movie used to be redundant because a long time ago, all movies were silent, but this is no longer true or redundant)

Thematic Roles
Thematic roles are the semantic relationships between the verbs and noun phrases of sentences. The following chart shows the thematic roles in relationship to verbs of sentences:

Thematic Role Description Example
Agent the one who performs an action Maria ran
Theme the person or thing that undergoes an action Mary called John
Location the place where an action takes place It rains in Spain
Goal the place to which an action is directed Put the cat on the porch
Source the place from which an action originates He flew from Chicago to LA
Instrument the means by which an action is performed He cuts his hair with scissors
Experiencer one who perceives something She heard Bob play the piano
Causative a natural force that causes a change The wind destroyed the house
Possessor one who has something The tail of the cat got caught
Recipient one who receives something I gave it to the girl

Sentential Meaning
The meaning of sentences is built from the meaning of noun phrases and verbs. Sentences contain truth conditions if the circumstances in the sentence are true. Paraphrases are two sentences with the same truth conditions, despite subtle differences in structure and emphasis. The ball was kicked by the boy is a paraphrase of the sentence the boy kicked the ball, but they have the same truth conditions - that a boy kicked a ball. Sometimes the truth of one sentence entails or implies the truth of another sentence. This is called entailment and the opposite of this is called contradiction, where one sentence implies the falseness of another. He was assassinated entails that he is dead. He was assassinated contradicts with the statement he is alive.

Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context. Linguistic context is discourse that precedes a sentence to be interpreted and situational context is knowledge about the world. In the following sentences, the kids have eaten already and surprisingly, they are hungry, the linguistic context helps to interpret the second sentence depending on what the first sentence says. The situational context helps to interpret the second sentence because it is common knowledge that humans are not usually hungry after eating.

Maxims of Conversation
Grice's maxims for conversation are conventions of speech such as the maxim of quantity that states a speaker should be as informative as is required and neither more nor less. The maxim of relevance essentially states a speaker should stay on the topic, and the maxim of manner states the speaker should be brief and orderly, and avoid ambiguity. The fourth maxim, the maxim of quality, states that a speaker should not lie or make any unsupported claims.

Performative Sentences
In these types of sentences, the speaker is the subject who, by uttering the sentence, is accomplishing some additional action, such as daring, resigning, or nominating. These sentences are all affirmative, declarative and in the present tense. An informal test to see whether a sentence is performative or not is to insert the words I hereby before the verb. I hereby challenge you to a match or I hereby fine you $500 are both performative, but I hereby know that girl is not. Other performative verbs are bet, promise, pronounce, bequeath, swear, testify, and dismiss.

Presuppositions
These are implicit assumptions required to make a sentence meaningful. Sentences that contain presuppositions are not allowed in court because accepting the validity of the statement mean accepting the presuppositions as well. Have you stopped stealing cars? is not admissible in court because no matter how the defendant answers, the presupposition that he steals cars already will be acknowledged. Have you stopped smoking? implies that you smoke already, and Would you like another piece? implies that you've already had one piece.

Deixis
Deixis is reference to a person, object, or event which relies on the situational context. First and second person pronouns such as my, mine, you, your, yours, we, ours and us are always deictic because their reference is entirely dependent on context. Demonstrative articles like this, that, these and those and expressions of time and place are always deictic as well. In order to understand what specific times or places such expressions refer to, we also need to know when or where the utterance was said. If someone says "I'm over here!" you would need to know who "I" referred to, as well as where "here" is. Deixis marks one of the boundaries of semantics and pragmatics.

Part Five: Neurolinguistics

The human brain consists of 10 billion nerve cells (neurons) and billions of fibers that connect them. These neurons or gray matter form the cortex, the surface of the brain, and the connecting fibers or white matter form the interior of the brain. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right cerebral hemispheres. These hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. In general, the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa.

The auditory cortex receives and interprets auditory stimuli, while the visual cortex receives and interprets visual stimuli. The angular gyrus converts the auditory stimuli to visual stimuli and vice versa. The motor cortex signals the muscles to move when we want to talk and is directed by Broca's area. The nerve fiber connecting Wernicke's and Broca's area is called the arcuate fasciculus.

Lateralization refers to any cognitive functions that are localized to one side of the brain or the other. Language is said to be lateralized and processed in the left hemisphere of the brain. Paul Broca first related language to the left side of the brain when he noted that damage to the front part of the left hemisphere (now called Broca's area) resulted in a loss of speech, while damage to the right side did not. He determined this through autopsies of patients who had acquired language deficits following brain injuries. A language disorder that follows a brain lesion is called aphasia, and patients with damage to Broca's area have slow and labored speech, loss of function words, and poor word order, yet good comprehension.

Carl Wernicke also used studies of autopsies to describe another type of aphasia that resulted from lesions in the back portion of the left hemisphere (now called Wernicke's area.) Unlike Broca's patients, Wernicke's spoke fluently and with good pronunciation, but with many lexical errors and a difficulty in comprehension. Broca's and Wernicke's area are the two main regions of the cortex of the brain related to language processing.

Aphasics can suffer from anomia, jargon aphasia, and acquired dyslexia. Anomia is commonly referred to as "tip of the tongue" phenomenon and many aphasics experience word finding difficulty on a regular basis. Jargon aphasia results in the substitution of one word or sound for another. Some aphasics may substitute similar words for each other, such as table for chair, or they may substitute completely unrelated words, such as chair for engine. Others may pronounce table as sable, substituting an s sound for a t sound. Aphasics who became dyslexic after brain damage are called acquired dyslexics. When reading aloud words printed on cards, the patients produced the following substitutions:

Stimuli Response One Response Two
Act Play Play
South East West
Heal Pain Medicine

The substitution of phonologically similar words, such as pool and tool, also provides evidence that a human's mental lexicon is organized by both phonology and semantics.

Broca's aphasics and some acquired dyslexics are unable to read function words, and when presented with them on the cards, the patients say no, as shown in the following example:

Stimuli One Response Stimuli Two Response
Witch Witch Which no!
Hour Time Our no!
Wood Wood Would no!

The patient's errors suggest our mental dictionary is further organized into parts consisting of major content words (first stimuli) and grammatical words (second stimuli.)

In addition, split-brain patients (those who have had their corpus callosum severed) provide evidence for language lateralization. If an object is placed in the left hand of split-brain patient whose vision is cut off, the person cannot name the object, but will know how to use it. The information is sent to the right side of the brain, but cannot be relayed to the left side for linguistic naming. However, if the object is placed in the person's right hand, the person can immediately name it because the information is sent directly to the left hemisphere.

Dichotic listening is another experimental technique, using auditory signals. Subjects hear a different sound in each ear, such as boy in the left ear and girl in the right ear or water rushing in the left ear and a horn honking in the right ear. When asked to state what they heard in each ear, subjects are more frequently correct in reporting linguistic stimuli in the right ear (girl) and nonverbal stimuli in the left ear (water rushing.) This is because the left side of the brain is specialized for language and a word heard in the right ear will transfer directly to the left side of the body because of the contralateralization of the brain. Furthermore, the right side of the brain is specialized for nonverbal stimuli, such as music and environmental sounds, and a noise heard in the left ear will transfer directly to the right side of the brain.

Part Six: Child Language Acquisition and Second Language Acquisition

Linguistic competence develops in stages, from babbling to one word to two word, then telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered the earliest form of language acquisition because infants will produce sounds based on what language input they receive. One word sentences (holophrastic speech) are generally monosyllabic in consonant-vowel clusters. During two word stage, there are no syntactic or morphological markers, no inflections for plural or past tense, and pronouns are rare, but the intonation contour extends over the whole utterance. Telegraphic speech lacks function words and only carries the open class content words, so that the sentences sound like a telegram.

Three theories
The three theories of language acquisition: imitation, reinforcement and analogy, do not explain very well how children acquire language. Imitation does not work because children produce sentences never heard before, such as "cat stand up table." Even when they try to imitate adult speech, children cannot generate the same sentences because of their limited grammar. And children who are unable to speak still learn and understand the language, so that when they overcome their speech impairment they immediately begin speaking the language. Reinforcement also does not work because it actually seldomly occurs and when it does, the reinforcement is correcting pronunciation or truthfulness, and not grammar. A sentence such as "apples are purple" would be corrected more often because it is not true, as compared to a sentence such as "apples is red" regardless of the grammar. Analogy also cannot explain language acquisition. Analogy involves the formation of sentences or phrases by using other sentences as samples. If a child hears the sentence, "I painted a red barn," he can say, by analogy, "I painted a blue barn." Yet if he hears the sentence, "I painted a barn red," he cannot say "I saw a barn red." The analogy did not work this time, and this is not a sentence of English.

Acquisitions
Phonology: A child's error in pronunciation is not random, but rule-governed. Typical phonological rules include: consonant cluster simplification (spoon becomes poon), devoicing of final consonants (dog becomes dok), voicing of initial consonants (truck becomes druck), and consonant harmony (doggy becomes goggy, or big becomes gig.)

Morphology: An overgeneralization of constructed rules is shown when children treat irregular verbs and nouns as regular. Instead of went as the past tense of go, children use goed because the regular verbs add an -ed ending to form the past tense. Similarly, children use gooses as the plural of goose instead of geese, because regular nouns add an -s in the plural.

The "Innateness Hypothesis" of child language acquisition, proposed by Noam Chomsky, states that the human species is prewired to acquire language, and that the kind of language is also determined. Many factors have led to this hypothesis such as the ease and rapidity of language acquisition despite impoverished input as well as the uniformity of languages. All children will learn a language, and children will also learn more than one language if they are exposed to it. Children follow the same general stages when learning a language, although the linguistic input is widely varied.

The poverty of the stimulus states that children seem to learn or know the aspects of grammar for which they receive no information. In addition, children do not produce sentences that could not be sentences in some human language. The principles of Universal Grammar underlie the specific grammars of all languages and determine the class of languages that can be acquired unconsciously without instruction. It is the genetically determined faculty of the left hemisphere, and there is little doubt that the brain is specially equipped for acquisition of human language.

The "Critical Age Hypothesis" suggests that there is a critical age for language acquisition without the need for special teaching or learning. During this critical period, language learning proceeds quickly and easily. After this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult, and for some people, never fully achieved. Cases of children reared in social isolation have been used for testing the critical age hypothesis. None of the children who had little human contact were able to speak any language once reintroduced into society. Even the children who received linguistic input after being reintroduced to society were unable to fully develop language skills. These cases of isolated children, and of deaf children, show that humans cannot fully acquire any language to which they are exposed unless they are within the critical age. Beyond this age, humans are unable to acquire much of syntax and inflectional morphology. At least for humans, this critical age does not pertain to all of language, but to specific parts of the grammar.

Second Language Acquisition Teaching Methods
Grammar-translation: the student memorizes words, inflected words, and syntactic rules and uses them to translate from native to target language and vice versa; most commonly used method in schools because it does not require teacher to be fluent; however, least effective method of teaching
Direct method: the native language is not used at all in the classroom, and the student must learn the new language without formal instruction; based on theories of first language acquisition
Audio-lingual: heavy use of dialogs and audio, based on the assumption that language learning is acquired mainly through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement; influenced by psychology
Natural Approach: emphasis on vocabulary and not grammar; focus on meaning, not form; use of authentic materials instead of textbook
Silent Way: teachers remain passive observers while students learn, which is a process of personal growth; no grammatical explanation or modeling by the teacher
Total Physical Response: students play active role as listener and performer, must respond to imperative drills with physical action
Suggestopedia: students always remain comfortable and relaxed and learn through memorization of meaningful texts, although the goal is understanding
Community Language Learning: materials are developed as course progresses and teacher understands what students need and want to learn; learning involves the whole person and language is seen as more than just communication
Community Language Teaching: incorporates all components of language and helps students with various learning styles; use of communication-based activities with authentic materials, needs of learner are taken into consideration when planning topics and objectives

Four skill areas
The four skill areas of learning a foreign language need to be addressed consistently and continually. Good lesson plans incorporate all four: Listening, Speaking, Reading (and Vocabulary), and Writing (and Grammar). Native speakers do not learn the skill areas separately, nor do they use them separately, so they shouldn’t be taught separately. However, it is easy to fall into the trap of teaching about the language, instead of actually teaching the language. Most textbooks resort to teaching grammar and vocabulary lists and nothing more.

Part Seven: Sociolinguistics

A dialect is a variety of language that is systematically different from other varieties of the same language. The dialects of a single language are mutually intelligible, but when the speakers can no longer understand each other, the dialects become languages. Geographical regions are also considered when dialects become languages. Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish are all considered separate languages because of regular differences in grammar and the countries in which they are spoken, yet Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes can all understand one another. Hindi and Urdu are considered mutually intelligible languages when spoken, yet the writing systems are different. On the other hand, Mandarin and Cantonese are mutually unintelligible languages when spoken, yet the writing systems are the same.

A dialect is considered standard if it is used by the upper class, political leaders, in literature and is taught in schools as the correct form of the language. Overt prestige refers to this dominant dialect. A non-standard dialect is associated with covert prestige and is an ethnic or regional dialect of a language. These non-standard dialects are just as linguistically sophisticated as the standard dialect, and judgments to the inferiority of them are based on social or racist judgments.

African-American English contains many regular differences of the standard dialect. These differences are the same as the differences among many of the world's dialects. Phonological differences include r and l deletion of words like poor (pa) and all (awe.) Consonant cluster simplification also occurs (passed pronounced like pass), as well as a loss of interdental fricatives. Syntactic differences include the double negative and the loss of and habitual use of the verb "be." He late means he is late now, but he be late means he is always late.

A lingua franca is a major language used in an area where speakers of more than one language live that permits communication and commerce among them. English is called the lingua franca of the whole world, while French used to be the lingua franca of diplomacy.

A pidgin is a rudimentary language of few lexical items and less complex grammatical rules based on another language. No one learns a pidgin as a native language, but children do learn creoles as a first language. Creoles are defined as pidgins that are adopted by a community as its native tongue.

Besides dialects, speakers may use different styles or registers (such as contractions) depending on the context. Slang may also be used in speech, but is not often used in formal situations or writing. Jargon refers to the unique vocabulary pertaining to a certain area, such as computers or medicine. Words or expressions referring to certain acts that are forbidden or frowned upon are considered taboo. These taboo words produce euphemisms, words or phrases that replace the expressions that are being avoided.

The use of words may indicate a society's attitude toward sex, bodily functions or religious beliefs, and they may also reflect racism or sexism in a society. Language itself is not racist or sexist, but the society may be. Such insulting words may reinforce biased views, and changes in society may be reflected in the changes in language.

Part Eight: Historical Linguistics

Languages that evolve from a common source are genetically related. These languages were once dialects of the same language. Earlier forms of Germanic languages, such as German, English, and Swedish were dialects of Proto-Germanic, while earlier forms of Romance languages, such as Spanish, French, and Italian were dialects of Latin. Furthermore, earlier forms of Proto-Germanic and Latin were once dialects of Indo-European.

Linguistic changes like sound shift is found in the history of all languages, as evidenced by the regular sound correspondences that exist between different stages of the same language, different dialects, and different languages. Words, morphemes, and phonemes may be altered, added or lost. The meaning of words may broaden, narrow or shift. New words may be introduced into a language by borrowing, or by coinage, blends and acronyms. The lexicon may also shrink as older words become obsolete.

Change comes about as a result of the restructuring of grammar by children learning the language. Grammars seem to become simple and regular, but these simplifications may be compensated for by more complexities. Sound changes can occur because of assimilation, a process of ease of articulation. Some grammatical changes are analogic changes, generalizations that lead to more regularity, such as sweeped instead of swept.

The study of linguistic change is called historical and comparative linguistics. Linguists identify regular sound correspondences using the comparative method among the cognates (words that developed from the same ancestral language) of related languages. They can restructure an earlier protolanguage and this allows linguists to determine the history of a language family.

Old English, Middle English, Modern English
Old English 499-1066 CE Beowulf
Middle English 1066-1500 CE Canterbury Tales
Modern English 1500-present Shakespeare

Phonological change: Between 1400 and 1600 CE, the Great Vowel Shift took place. The seven long vowels of Middle English underwent changes. The high vowels [i] and [u] became the diphthongs [aj] and [aw]. The long vowels increased tongue height and shifted upward, and [a] was fronted. Many of the spelling inconsistencies of English are because of the Great Vowel Shift. Our spelling system still reflects the way words were pronounced before the shift took place.

Morphological change: Many Indo-European languages had extensive case endings that governed word order, but these are no longer found in Romance languages or English. Although pronouns still show a trace of the case system (he vs. him), English uses prepositions to show the case. Instead of the dative case (indirect objects), English usually the words to or for. Instead of the genitive case, English uses the word of or 's after a noun to show possession. Other cases include the nominative (subject pronouns), accusative (direct objects), and vocative.

Syntactic change: Because of the lack of the case system, word order has become more rigid and strict in Modern English. Now it is strictly Subject - Verb - Object order.

Orthographic change: Consonant clusters have become simplified, such as hlaf becoming loaf and hnecca becoming neck. However, some of these clusters are still written, but are no longer pronounced, such as gnaw, write, and dumb.

Lexical change: Old English borrowed place names from Celtic, army, religious and educational words from Latin, and everyday words from Scandinavian. Angle and Saxon (German dialects) form the basis of Old English phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Middle English borrowed many words from French in the areas of government, law, religion, literature and education because of the Norman Conquest in 1066 CE. Modern English borrowed words from Latin and Greek because of the influence of the classics, with much scientific terminology.

For more information, read the History of English page.

Part Nine: Classification of Languages

Indo-European family of languages

* Italic (Latin)
o Romance
+ Catalan
+ French
+ Italian
+ Occitan (Provençal)
+ Portuguese
+ Rhaeto-Romansch
+ Romanian
+ Spanish
* Germanic
o North Germanic
+ Danish
+ Faroese
+ Icelandic
+ Norwegian
+ Swedish
o East Germanic
+ Gothic (extinct)
o West Germanic
+ Afrikaans
+ Dutch
+ English
+ Flemish
+ Frisian
+ German
+ Yiddish
* Slavic
o Western
+ Czech
+ Polish
+ Slovak
+ Sorbian
o Eastern
+ Belarusian
+ Russian
+ Ukrainian
o Southern
+ Bulgarian
+ Croatian
+ Macedonian
+ Old Church Slavonic
+ Serbian
+ Slovene
* Baltic
o Latvian
o Lithuanian
o Old Prussian (extinct)
* Celtic
o Brythonic
+ Breton
+ Cornish (extinct)
+ Gaulish (extinct)
+ Welsh
o Goidelic
+ Irish
+ Manx Gaelic (extinct)
+ Scots Gaelic
* Hellenic (Greek)
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Anatolian (extinct)
* Tocharian (extinct)
* Indo-Iranian
o Indo-Aryan (Indic)
+ Assamese
+ Bengali
+ Bihari
+ Gujarati
+ Hindi-Urdu
+ Marathi
+ Punjabi
+ Romani
+ Sanskrit
+ Sindhi
+ Singhalese
o Iranian
+ Avestan
+ Balochi
+ Farsi (Persian)
+ Kurdish
+ Pashtu (Afghan)
+ Sogdian

Uralic (or Finno-Ugric) is the other major family of languages spoken on the European continent. Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian are examples.

Afro-Asiatic languages are spoken in Northern Africa and the Middle East. They include Berber, Egyptian, Omotic and Cushitic languages (Somali, Iraqw) as well as the modern Semitic languages of Hebrew, Arabic and Amharic, in addition to languages spoken in biblical times, such as Aramaic, Akkadian, Babylonian, Canaanite, and Phoenician.

The Altaic languages are classified as Japanese and Korean, though some linguists separate these languages into their own groups.

Sino-Tibetan languages include Mandarin, Hakka, Wu, Burmese, Tibetan, and all of the Chinese "dialects."

Austro-tai languages include Indonesian, Javanese and Thai; while the Asiatic group includes Vietnamese.

The Dravidian languages of Tamil and Telugu are spoken in southeastern India and Sri Lanka.

The Caucasian language family consists of 40 different languages, and is divided into Cartvelian (south Caucasian), North-West Caucasian and North-East Caucasian language groups. Some languages are Georgian, Megrelian, Chechen, Ingush Avarian, Lezgian and Dargin. These languages are mostly spoken in Georgia, Turkey, Syria, Iran, Jordan and parts of the Russian federation.

The Niger-Congo family includes most of the African languages. About 1,500 languages belong to this group, including the Bantu languages of Swahili, Tswana, Xhosa, Zulu, Kikuyu, and Shona. Other languages are Ewe, Mina, Yoruba, Igbo, Wolof, Kordofanian and Fulfulde.

Other African language groups are Nilo-Saharan, which includes 200 languages spoken in Central and Eastern Africa; and Khoisan, the click languages of southern Africa. The Khoisan group only contains about 30 languages, most of which are spoken in Namibia and Botswana.

The Austronesian family also contains about 900 languages, spoken all over the globe. Hawaiian, Maori, Tagalog, and Malay are all representatives of this language family.

Many languages are, or were, spoken in North and South America by the native peoples before the European conquests. Knowledge of these languages is limited, and because many of the languages are approaching extinction, linguists have little hope of achieving a complete understanding of the Amerindian language families.

SEMANTICS : STUDY OF MEANING AND REFERENCE

SEMANTICS AS PART OF GRAMMAR

Dalam mempelajari linguistic dan perpaduan prinsipnya maka belum lengkap tanpa menjabarkan tentang apa makna dari unit tersebut, bagaimana ia digunakan, dan apa yang biasanya digunakan untuk berkomunikasi.
Pada bidang linguistic, semantics secara umum diartikan sebagai study dari arti atau makna dan anggapan yang terkait dalam bahasa, sedangkan secara logika atau nalar, semantic dianggap sebagai reference atau petunjuk linguistic dan kondisi sebenarnya dalam bahasa.
Deskripsi semantic dalam hakikat kebahasaan harus mencatat fakta dari suatu arti atau makna, linguistic reference, dan pada keadaan yang sebenarnya.
Semantik itu tidak selamanya berperan penting di Linguistik modern.Dari PD II di awal tahun 60an telah dilihat,terutama di Amerika Serikat,sebaagai sesuatu yang tidak terlalu dihormati.
Karena Semantik dianggap sesuatu yang aneh dan bukan bagian dari grammar.
Hingga Katz dan Fodor dan article mereka yang begitu berpengaruh,”The structure of a semantic theory”
Banyak anggapan bahwa semantic merupakan bagian dari grammar seperti syntax dan phonology. Sering dikataka bahwa grammar mendeskripsikan tentang sebagaimana kefasihan pembicara menguasai bahasanya atau linguistic competence. Berarti kita bisa beranggapan bahwa kefasihan apapun yang diketahui oleh pembicara merupakan bagian dari deskripsi bahasa itu sendiri. Deskripsi makna merupakan bagian yang teramat penting mengenai deskripsi dari pembicara mengenai pengetahuan linguistics. Grammar harus berisi tentang komponen yang dapat menjelaskan tentang apa yang diketahui oleh pembicara mengenai semantics.
Anggapan lebih umum juga mendorong kita untuk memasukkan semantics ke dalam grammar. Bahasa sering didefinisikan sebagai system konvensional dalam berkomunikasi, yaitu system untuk menyampaikan pesan. Selain itu, komunikasi akan tercapai jika hanya pesan yang disampaikan tersebut memiliki arti. Jadi untuk mengkarakterisasikan system tersebut, sangatlah penting untuk mengetahui artinya dan itu mengandung semantics.





6.2 WHAT ARE MEANING AND REFERENCE ?

MEANING




Di dalam bahasa inggris, kata “mean” bisa memiliki banyak arti dan penggunaan. Pada contoh 1 pada halaman 238, dari 10 contoh kalimat yang menggunakan kata mean dan means, tak satupun dari mereka yang sesuai dengan kata “mean” yang sedang kita diskusikan saat ini.
Lebih baik kita menggunakan istilah mean dan meaning,seperti pada contoh 2.
Penggunaan kata “mean” pada kedua contoh tersebut menunjukkan 2 tipe penting dari meaning itu sendiri, yaitu linguistic meaning dan speaker’s meaning.
Linguistik meaning merupakan arti sebenarnya dari apa yang diekspresikan. Sedangkan speaker’s meaning dapat berbeda dari linguistic meaning tergantung dari speaker itu sendiri, apakah ia berbicara secara harfiah atau arti yang sebenarnya (Literally) atau tidak ( nonliterally).
Literally maksudnya pembicara mengatakan sesuatu sesuai dengan arti sebenarnya, pada hal ini tidak ada perbedaan antara linguistic meaning dengan speaker’s meaning. Non literally sendiri mengenai apa yang kita maksudkan itu berbeda dengan apa yang kita ucapkan. Misalnya ketika kita menggunakan sindiran. Contohnya di hal 239,alinea 1.
Kembali ke pembicaraan awal yang membicarakan tentang makna sebuah Meaning kita harus tetap mengingat bahwa meaning dari sebuah kata bisa beragam melewati dialek dan di berbagai macam pembicara. Contoh : kata “Bonnet”, untuk American English kata tersebut berarti salah satu jenis topi. Sementara untuk British English “Bonnet” itu berarti kap penutup mesin mobil atau motor. Jadi Bonnet itu tidak bisa ditetapkan menjadi suatu arti tetap untuk semua jenis bahasa Inggris.
Masalah ini menjadi semakin rumit ketika kita menemukan arti tersebut antara pembicara yang memiliki dialek yang sama. Bahasa pada setiap individu tergantung dari gaya bahasa seseorang tersebut. Jadi arti atau makna dari gaya bahasa seseorang dapat berbeda antara satu dengan yang lain.
Lalu bagaimana dengan kamus bahasa Inggris ? Darimana mereka tahu arti sebuah kata ? atau benar atau tidaknya ? Mengingat banyaknya perbedaan di setiap arti sebuah kata. Kembali lagi kepada prescriptive rule dan descriptive rule tentang grammar di Chapter 1. Kamus – kamus yang ada biasanya diperoleh dari tradisi prescriptive rule dan selalu digunakan untuk bahasa tulis yang bersifat formal. Sehingga penggunaan kata-kata informal yang tidak dimasukkan dalam daftar dan dianggap tidak tepat atau tidak cocok. Sementara dari sudut pandang descriptive rule, berbahasa lisan dapat membentuk pusat sumber data dari teory linguistics dan para linguist lebih memperhatikan dalam menemukan makna dan hubungannya pada bahasa lisan yang digunakan sebenarnya oleh pembicara. Meskipun kamus dapat berguna dalam menyediakan suatu definisi kata tetapi ia tidak menggambarkan secara akurat arti dan variasi arti kata yang biasa digunakan pada bahasa sehari-hari.
Seorang pembicara itu haruslah bebas dalam menggunakan kata dan dapat melanggar aturan berbahasa yang ada pada prescriptive rule. Keberhasilan sebuah komunikasi itu bergantung pada kreativitas seseorang untuk menggunakan dan mengolah kata dalam berbagai cara.






WHAT IS MEANING
Beberapa konsep mengenai meaning dari semantics teori :
The Referential Theory of Meaning
Jika kita hanya focus pada ekspresi-ekspresi dalam suatu bahasa, misalnya de gaulle, chris evert, Italy atau frase kata benda seperti the present president of the United States, the first person to walk on our moon dsb. Seseorang biasanya menyimpulkannya berdasarkan sesuatu yang mereka maksud. Seperti konsep dari meaning yang berslogan :
“Arti dari setiap ekspresi adalah mengenai objek yang sesungguhnya yang dimaksudkan.”
Meskipun slogan tersebut menggambarkan fakta bahwa kita menggunakan bahasa untuk membicarakan dunia, namun masalahnya untuk mengidentifikasi meaning sebagai reference. Apabila kita percaya bahwa meaning dari suatu ekspresi adalah referentnya, maka kita akan menghadapi konsekuensi:
a. Jika suatu ekspresi memiliki meaning, maka pasti memiliki referent
b. Jika dua ekspresi memiliki referent yang sama maka keduanya memiliki meaning yang sama
c. jika referent dari suatu ekspresi benar maka meaningnya juga akan benar
Ketiga konsekuensi ini tentu bernilai salah, maka teori ini harus dimodifikasi. Pada poin (a) pada setiap ekspresi yang memiliki meaning berarti harus memiliki objek yang actual(nyata). Lalu bagaimana arti kata seperti Pegasus, The, Very djelaskan? Pada poin (b) jika dua ekspresi mengacu pada objek yang sama maka dia memiliki makna yang sama. Ini berarti bahwa keduanya bersinonim. Tetapi banyak ekspresi yang digunakan untuk mengacu pada satu objek yang tidak memiliki mean yang berbeda. Misalnya the morning star, the evening star, dan venus semuanya mengacu pada planet yang sama tetapi mereka tidak bersinonim. Pada poin (c) misalnya pada kalimat “Sir Edmund Hilary was the first European to climb Mt. Everest sehingga he was knigted by the Queen. Tapi apabila kita menyimpulkan makna dari Sir Edmund Hilary was the first European to climb Mt. Everest adalah he was knigted by the Queen ini terdengar tidak masuk akal. Sehingga dapat kita simpulkan bahwa teori ini tidak dapat diterima atau harus dimodifikasi dengan cara yang lain.

Mentalist Theory of Meaning
Jika kita mengatakan bahwa sebuah arti kata bukan actual obyek, maka ia merupakan mental obyek.
Glucksberg dan Danks (1975,50) mengatakan bahwa ”Sebuah rangkaian makna dari kata merupakan serangkaian perasaan, gambaran, ide, konsep, pikiran, serta kesimpulan yang dibuat seseorang ketika ia mendengarkan atau memproses kata tersebut.”
“Arti dari setiap ekspresi E merupakan sebuah ide atau ide-ide, I(saya), diasosiasikan dengan E di pikiran pembicara”
Konsep ini tentu saja memiliki masalah, yaitu :
• Ide yang menjadi dasar teori ini sebenarnya masih tidak jelas apabila digunakan untuk mengartikan sesuatu yang spesifik. Teori ini juga tidak bisa diuji.
• Atau apabila ide tersebut cukup tepat untuk diujikan, teori ini bisa saja membuat prediksi yang salah.
• Teori ini juga mengatakan bahwa meaning juga merupakan gambaran pikiran seseorang. Ternyata gambaran pikiran dalam teori ini tidak cukup tajam atau masih terlalu abstrak untuk menggambarkan sesuatu apalagi sebuah kata kerja atau kata benda.
• Masalah lain dari teori ini adalah untuk membuat konsep dari hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan ide. Sebuah teori harus dapat mengidentifikasi dan membedakan konsep dari sebuah arti atau makna. Singkatnya teori ini memiliki banyak kesulitan. Kemungkinan masalahnya terletak pada awal asumsi tentang makna itu adalah sebuah kesatuan.
The Use Theory of Meaning
Teori ini dikemukakan oleh Wittgenstein pada 1930.
“Arti dari ekspresi E ditentukan dari penggunaannya di dalam bahsa komunitas atau bahasa masyarakat sehari-hari”
Problem yang dihadapi pada teori ini ialah konsep yang berkaitan dari penggunaan ( use ) haruslah tepat, dan bagaimana penggunaannya bisa digunakan untuk berkomunikasi.
Kesimpulannya,sangatlah bijak apabila kita mengatakan bahwa tidak ada teori yang sangat bagus untuk mendeskripsikan apa itu meaning dan semua teori yang telah disurvey tersebut merupakan pernyataan yag tidak menyatu. Tapi kedepannya masih ada banyak riset tentang hal ini.

REFERENCE
Kata refer sering digunakan untuk mengacu pada apa yang pembicara lakukan. Sedangkan istilah denote atau semantic reference digunakan untuk mengacu pada apa yang dilakukan oleh kata atau frase tersebut. Objek yang dijelaskan oleh pembicara (orang) disebut referent. Sedangkan objek yang dijelaskan secara semantic disebut denotation.
Reference itu terbagi atas dua, yaitu speaker’s reference dan linguistic reference.
Speaker’s reference mencakup apa yang pembicara tujukan ketika menyampaikan sesuatu, dan speaker’s reference bisa saja sama dengan apa yang pembicara indikasikan. Seperti contoh, sesuatu ditujukkan kepada George Washington dengan menggunakan The First President. Ini dapat terjadi walaupun sesuatu yang diindikasikan tidak sama dengan semantic reference. Yang perlu ditekankan bahwa denotations merupakan segala sesuatu dan kejadian yang ada di dunia ini. Dengan kata lain word or phrase denotes adalah segala sesuatu dan peristiwa yang dapat dijelaskan dengan kata-kata.
Perhatikan contoh (4) HALAMAN 425.
Contoh a&b adalah singular expression. Sedangkan contoh C&D adalah General expression.
Perbedaan antara general expressions dengan singular expression yaitu :
- General expression yang terdiri dari nouns, verbs, adjective, dan frase dapat menjelaskan berbagai macam sesuatu atau peristiwa. Misalnya kata red dapat mengindikasikan kepada sesuatu yang berwarna merah.
- Singular expression yang terdiri dari proper name seperti Julius Caesar, frase seperti the dents on the fender, dan pronoun seperti she, he, dan they. Singular expression memiliki property yang digunakan pada kejadian tertentu, dan mengacu pada single thing atau collection of things.

WHAT IS REFERENCE?

Ada dua teori mengenai reference yaitu :
Description Theory
Konsep yang ada pada teori ini yaitu suatu ekspresi mengacu tentang apa yang diacukan karena ia menjelaskan tentang acuan tersebut. Misalnya pada contoh frase the first person to walk on our moon yang mengacu kepada Neil Amstrong atas berdasarkan fakta yang pantas untuk menjelaskannya. Lalu bagaimana dengan pronoun dan proper name? Teori ini mengatasinya dengan mengatakan bahwa orang-orang menggunakan eksperesi yang ada dalam pikirannya untuk mengacu pada objek yang ia maksudkan. Jadi teori ini berdasarkan dari speaker’s reference, bukan dari linguistic reference.
The Historical Chain Theory
Konsep dari teori ini bahwa suatu ekspresi mengacu pada apa yang diacukannya berdasarkan atas suatu hubungan historis antara kata yang diucapkan dan memberi gelar pada objek dengan nama tersebut. Ini menunjukkan bahwa penggunaannya diteruskan dari satu pembicara ke pembicara lain dari generasi ke generasi.
Kedua teoti tersebut memiliki kekurangan dan kelebihannya. The Description Theory banyak digunakan untuk menjelaskan kata yang termasuk dalam Noun dan Adjective. Sedangkan The Historical Chain Theory lebih banyak digunakan pada proper names, dan dapat digunakan dalam ekspresi seperti she, he, that, dll.

6.3 AIMS AND CLAIMS OF SEMANTIC THEORY
WORD AND PHRASES
MEANING PROPERTIES
Properties yang paling penting dari semantic properties ialah apakah suatu kata itu bersifat meaningful atau meaningless. Kosakata harus menetapkan dan bisa mewakili suatu arti ke dalam berbagai cara. Contohnya pada kata “bachelor” berarti “unmarried adult male”, dan kata “mother” berarti “female parent”. Dalam mempelajari bahasa kita sendiri, kita tentunya mengetahui dan membedakan apakah kata tersebut bersifat meaningful atau meaningless. Contoh di hal 247, kata-kata tersebut bersifat meaningful sementara contoh kedua dimana anak kecil berbicara dengan bahsanya sendiri, “wawa” sebagai bentuk ekspresinya menyebut water. Hal itu bersifat meaningless. Walaupun kata tersebut sangat berguna untuk berkomunikasi antara anak tersebut dan orang tuanya.
Semantic property lainnya yaitu ambiguity atau biasa diartikan sebagai lexical ambiguity. Contohnya ada pada halaman 247 nomor (5). Kemampuan untuk menentukan ambiguity tidak mudah pada saat berkomunikasi. Keberhasilan dalam berkomunikasi sangat bergantung pada pemahaman antara pendengar dan pembicara dalam mengenali adanya kemungkinan kata yang ambigu.
Properties lainnya ialah anomaly. dikatakan anomalous apabila terdapat ketidakcocokan meaning dari kata tersebut. Lihat contoh (6) pada hal 248. Selalu memungkinkan untuk menentukan arti dari sebuah ekspression. Terlebih ketika melihat beberapa bentuk puisi, kita diminta untuk menentukan arti kata yang terkandung dalam anomalous expression tersebut. Pada contoh (6) tidak memiliki terjemahan dalam bahasa inggris. Yang perlu diingat bahwa anomalous expression secara sintax memiliki bentuk yang benar sehingga akan memudahkan kita untuk menemukan makna dari ekspresi tersebut.


MEANING RELATIONS
Sebuah kata ataupun kata-kata itu tidak hanya memilki sebuah properties atau sifat tetapi juga memilki hubungan satu sama lain, meaning relations . Seperti halnya berhubungan secara morphologi dan semantic. Kata itu juga dihubungkan oleh sifat atau arti kata tersebut didalam lexicon.
1. Sinonim merupakan hubungan dari sebuah kata yang memilki arti yang sama.Tulisannya berbeda tetapi meliki arti yang sama.
2. Homophonus merupakan hubungan yang ada diantara 2 kata yang memilki pengucapan yang sama tetapi dengan arti yang berbeda. Contohnya kata bank ,bank yang merujuk kepada sisi sebuah sungai melawan kata bank yang merajuk kepada institusi keuangan.
3. Meaning inclusion. Ada pada contoh 7 dan 8 hal 249 merupakan contoh dari meaning inclusion. Ketika kita menggabungkan kata tersebut maka akan menghasilkan kata yang berlebihan atau pemborosan kata. Hubungan ini menunjukkan walaupun 2 kata itu tidak bersinonim dan arti masing-masing mereka tidak sesuai, tetapi arti mereka saling melengakpi dan memiliki kesamaan aspek semantic.
4. Antonymous merupakan lawan arti dari sebuah kata. Contoh 9 hal 249. Tetapi tidak semua hal yang berlawanan merupakan lawan arti kata. Seperti cat dan dog, kedua hal ini selalu bertentangan tetapi bukan berarti dia berantonim.
5. Semantic field. Walaupun selompok kata tidak bersinonim tetapi ia dapat menjelaskan tentang kejadian yang sama sehingga dapat disebut sebagai semantic fileds. Contohnya : color terms ( red,green,blue,yellow), kinship terms (mother,father,sister,brother). Istilah semantic field juga dapat diperluas dengan mengaitkan kata tersebut dengan kata yang memiliki kedekatan arti misalnya pada “plant names”, “animal names”, dsb.

Setelah kita melihat semua properties dan hubungan semantic dari arti kata, kita bisa ingat bahwa lexicon itu bukan sekedar deretan atau daftar kata-kata, tetapi melaui properties dan relations tadi kita bisa mengetahui bahwa setiap kata bisa saja meiliki kesamaan, lawan arti, serta jaringan.
Lexicon juga merupakan struktur internal yang kompleks.



SENTENCES


Karena kalimat itu tersusun dari kata-kata dan phrase, kita mengharapkan dengan serangkaian semantics properties dan relations dari sebuah kata maupun phrase juga mampu membawa kedalam kalimat tersebut. Jika sebuah kalimat diartikan sebagai sebuah hasil pemikiran yang komplit,maka hal ini tidak berguna,tetapi kalimat ternyta memiliki fungsi yang unik.Sehingga kita bisa mengharapkan untuk menemukan property semantic atau hubungan nya yang unik di dalam sebuah kalimat.

MEANING PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS

Sebelumnya telah dibahas mengenai 2 bentuk meaning properties dan relation kata mengenai ambiguity dan synonymy. Sekarang, kita akan membahas tentang property of sentence yaitu communicative potential.
a. Declarative sentencemerupakan kalimat pernyataan.
b. Imperative sentencemerupakan kalimat perintah
c. Interrogative sentencemerupakan kalimat pertanyaan.
Bidang semantic, secara tradisional umumnya berkosentrasi pada kalimat pernyataan yang dimana tersebut diianggap benar.

TRUTH PROPERTIES

Tidak hanya ekspresi memiliki arti properties dan relations, tetapi ekspresi itu juga bisa digunakan untuk menytakan sesuatu itu benar atau salah. Tentu saja tidak ada teori semantic yang bisa menentukan kalimat mana yang kita gunakan untuk mengatakan yang benar atau yang salah. Benar atau tidaknya sebuah kalimat itu tergantung dari kepada siapa kalimat itu merujuk dan keambiguitasan kalimat tersebut. Misalnya pada contoh :

I took your picure bisa berarti :
a. I removed your painting last night.
b. I photograph you last night.

Apakah ini berarti bahwa sematic sebagai hakikat kebahasaan tidak berhubungan dengan kepalsuan dan kebenaran? Jawabannya adalah tidak, karena truth properties dan truth relations bagaimanapun juga memiliki reference dan memiliki arti yang pasti.

Truth properties dibagi menjadi dua :
a. Linguistically true (analitycally true) or linguistically false (contradictory)
Suatu kalimat dikatakan linguistically true jika kebenarannya ditentukan semata-mata oleh semantics dan tidak perlu diuji lagi faktanya.
b. Empirically true or empirically false
Suatu kalimat dikatakan empirically true or false jika kebenarannya tidak ditentukan oleh semantics sehingga kebenarannya perlu diuji.
Semantics tidak membahas mengenai empirically true atau falsehood tetapi lebih membahas mengenai linguistically true or false.

TRUTH RELATIONS

Di dalam semantic, juga ada truth relations seperti halnya truth properties.Truth relations yang paling penting yaitu entailment. Sebuah kalimat dikatakan entail (berkaitan) kepada kata yang lain jika kebenaran pada kalimat yang pertama juga menjamin kebenaran pada kalimat yang kedua begitupun juga kesalahan pada kalimat yang pertama juga menjamin kesalahan pada kalimat yang kedua. Contoh 16 pada 254.
Masih berkaitan dengan entailment terdapat truth relation yang lain yaitu semantic presupposition. Semantic presupposition adalah hubungan antara dua kalimat yang memiliki kesamaan.




LOGICAL FORM AND ANALYTIC SENTENCE (TECHNICAL SECTION)


Ada beberapa perbedaan-perbedaan penting pada contoh 13,14 dan 15.Pada contoh 13,nilai kebenaran T or F semata-mata ditentukan oleh kata sambung or,and,if…then,dan kata not ( yang terkadang menyingkat it is not the case that.Sejak kata–kata tersebut dinamakan logical words,kalimat tersebut juga di sebut sebagai